The Mongol people primarily lived between the Greater Khingan Range (east) and the Altai Mountains (west), from Lake Baikal (north) to the Great Wall of China (south). This region is dominated by the vast steppes, with the silver birch forests of Siberia to the north, and the arid southern region eventually reaching the desolate Gobi Desert. In the middle of the steppes, Mongolian people have set up their nomadic life. In the long journey of history where prosperity and decline are repeated, the Northern nomads established huge nomadic empires that have a tremendous influence on the exchange and development of Eastern and Western Cultures, leaving deep footsteps in world history.

I. Dawn of the Empire

It is estimated that humans have inhabited Mongolia for at least 800,000 years. The Stone Age of Mongolia is generally divided into three periods: the Paleolithic Age, when large stone tools were primarily used; the Mesolithic Age, characterized by well-processed stone tools; and the Neolithic Age, when stone tools became more standardized, pottery was produced, and people began wearing clothes made from woven fabrics and animal hides, along with decorative ornaments and accessories.

The bronzeware, first appeared in the late third millennium BCE, became widespread in the early first millennium BCE. Bronzeware from this period is often decorated with depictions of various animals, including predators, herbivores, and domestic animals. Bronze objects with animal designs have been excavated from Khirigssur graves and stone-slab graves, and are also described in deer stones and petroglyphs.

II. Ancient Nomadic Empires of Mongolia

In the Mongolian region, the Xiongnu Empire, established the first state in the third century BCE, followed by the states of the Xianbei and the Rouran. From the mid-sixth to the late ninth century CE, the Mongolian region was ruled by the Turk, the Uyghurs, and the Kyrgyz, before the Mongolian Khitans appeared in the early tenth century. Among these nomadic states, the Xiongnu Empire (third century BCE to first century CE) and the Turkic Khaganate (i.e., the Turk, 552–745) have been actively researched recently and have made numerous achievements.

Actively engaging in cultural exchange between East and West, the Xiongnu were powerful enough to compete against the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE, first dynasty of Imperial China) and the Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). The Xiongnu were succeeded by the Turk, nomadic people who used the old Turkic alphabet. The Turk established the Turkic Khaganate, an enormous nomadic empire that covered most of the steppes and oases of Inner Asia. Recent excavation sites of Turkish shrines, which were constructed for commemorative rituals, have yielded records and cultural artefacts that have significantly increased our understanding of their culture.

Epilogue: Korean History and Nomadic States

Moving continuously through the wide expanses of the steppes, the nomadic people of the Mongol Empires had no separation from the outdoor world. Indeed, their lives and destiny to lead the persistent flow of their existence to the north, south, east, and west. As such, they have repeatedly appeared and disappeared of world history.

Some of these nomadic states, including the Xiongnu and the Turk, bordered and competed with kingdoms on the Korean peninsula, such as Gojoseon, the first state on the Korean Peninsula, and Goguryeo(37 BCE-668 CE). Later, the Goryeo Dynasty(718-1392) was suppressed by the huge Mongol Empire for a time. During the Joseon period(1392-1910), a textbook on the Mongolian language was published, featured Hangeul translations next to the original Mongolian sentences. This book demonstrates Korea’s continuous efforts to communicate with the Mongols.