Handaxes, oval-shaped stone tools with a sharp end, are a paleolithic tool designed to be grasped in the hand and used in a variety of ways. Paleolithic humans first imagined the overall shape of such handaxes and then crafted them. Handaxes have been discovered in a wide range of geographic areas, including Western Europe, the Mideast, Africa, the British Isles, the Indian Subcontinent, and East Asia. They were used from roughly 1.7 million years ago until 100,000 years in the past. The archeoanthropine who made these handaxes is believed to be Homo erectus. This handaxe was unearthed in Jeongok-ri, Yeoncheon-gun, Gyeonggi-do Province. Hallam L. Movius (1907–1987), an American archaeologist working in the early 1940s, classified paleolithic culture into handaxe culture in Europe and chopper culture in Asia. He had asserted that handaxes never existed in East Asia. However, the excavation of this handaxe in Jeongok-ri in 1978 forced a reevaluation.

"Comb-pattern pottery, a distinctive Neolithic cultural element of ancient Korea, was produced roughly 6,000 years ago. This V-shaped pottery can be divided into the mouth, body, and foot, all of which are adorned with diverse designs. Pottery from the Neolithic period is commonly decorated with geometric, plant, or animal patterns. These patterns may be incised or carved onto the bodies of the vessels. Alternatively, clay bands may be added. The symmetrical arrangement of designs in such pottery indicates an outstanding spatial organization ability by Neolithic people, a keen sense of aesthetics, and sophisticated spirituality. After the chance discovery that firing clay makes it durable, Neolithic people took advantage of this property to create pottery. The use of pottery led to great changes in prehistoric life, including allowing the storage of food, cooking, settlement, and the utilization of new plant resources. "

The Bronze Age cultures active in Korea can be divided between the Liaoning-type bronze dagger culture and the Korean-type bronze dagger culture, respectively before and after the fifth to fourth centuries BCE. Korean-type bronze daggers represent the period when a Bronze Age culture distinctive to Korean Peninsula was established. Compared to Liaoning-type bronze daggers, Korean-type versions have rather slender, straight blades, so they are also referred to as slender bronze daggers or narrow brass daggers. They are similar to Liaoning-type bronze daggers in having separately made handles. The dates and regions of the production of Korean-type bronze daggers can be identified by their forms and polishing methods. Early Korean-type bronze daggers have nearly invisible joints in their waist sections, but distinct joints become apparent in later ones. Most Korean-type bronze daggers were excavated from tombs alongside mirrors with fine linear designs, bronze bells, jade, and pottery. In many cases, a great quantity of bronze objects were found within a single tomb. The burial of such valuable bronze objects with a single person indicates the emergence of a strong ruler in the society of the time. Korean-type bronze daggers were more than weapons. They symbolized the political power of a ruler in the society of the time.

Fine linear designs typify the bronze mirrors of Korean-type bronze dagger culture. Mirrors with coarse linear designs from the early Bronze Age have been found in the northeast regions of China, the Maritime Province of Siberia, the Korean Peninsula, and the Japanese Archipelago. However, mirrors with fine linear designs have only been discovered in the southern reaches of the Daedonggang River, which indicates that they were created on the Korean Peninsula. Like mirrors with coarse linear designs, mirrors with fine linear designs have two or three knobs in the center of the reverse sides. They show much more elaborate carvings compared to mirrors with coarse linear designs. To produce such elaborate designs on a mirror, a mold was made of fine sand, carved with patterns, and filled with molten bronze. Once the bronze hardened, the mold was broken. The unadorned surfaces of the mirror were polished smooth. Compared to mirrors with coarse linear designs, mirrors with fine linear designs employed more advanced carving techniques that resulted in accurate concentric circles and narrow line spacing. Significant technological breakthroughs in bronzeware production led to delicately carved designs. Accordingly, rather than daily goods, mirrors with fine linear designs are believed to have been ritual objects representing the sun or symbols of religious authority.

Bronze bells began to appear in the central-western regions of the Korean Peninsula during the golden age of Korean-type bronze dagger culture. Bronze bells, including pole-top bells and ritual objects with end bells, have been discovered in tombs along with Korean-type bronze daggers and mirrors with fine linear designs. Later, the central location for the production of bronze objects, including bronze bells, shifted to the southeastern regions of the Korean Peninsula. Anchor-shaped bells, cocoon-shaped bells, and pole-top bells have been unearthed mainly from these regions, which indicates changes in bell types and production techniques. Bronze bells are presumed to have been used as ritual objects, suggesting that sound played an important role in the rituals of the time. In the case of pole-top socketed bells, the sections where the bells were inserted became elongated and the pellets inside grew larger in general. This indicates that the function of producing sound must have been emphasized. In terms of form and function, bronze bells reflect originality during the Bronze Age in Korea

"This exquisite necklace featuring transparent crystals was excavated from a wooden chamber tomb in Yangdong-ri, Gimhae. Humans have always sought to adorn their bodies. In the Neolithic period, people worked with jade to create accessories, especially necklaces. Necklaces were produced across the centuries, but the materials and forms differ according to the period. During the Samhan period, which is characterized by the iron culture, necklaces began to be made from materials in diverse colors, including crystal, agate, and amber, and also using the glass and its manufacturing techniques introduced from China. According to the “Eastern Barbarians” section of the Book of Wei in Sanguo zhi (Records of the Three Kingdoms), Samhan people regarded jade and beads as more valuable than gold or silver. Various types of beads have been unearthed in great numbers from Samhan-period tombs. In particular, a number of crystal beads were used in Gyeongju and in the Gimhae areas of the Jinhan and Byeonhan Confederacies. This necklace demonstrates the outstanding crystal processing techniques and the exquisite aesthetic sense of the Samhan people. Samhan also further developed glass manufacturing technology and produced glass beads in different colors, such as red and blue. "

"In the Goguryeo Kingdom, stone chamber tombs decorated with murals depicting traditional customs, ornamental patterns, and guardians of the four directions developed. Tomb murals continued to be produced from the mid-third to the mid-seventh century, with most found in Jian in Jilin Province, China, the former capital of Goguryeo Kingdom, as well as in the Pyeongyang area in North Korea. Goguryeo mural paintings were first created under the influence of China, but they eventually developed into a distinctive style. Gangseodaemyo Tomb consists of an entrance passage and a burial chamber above the ground. The walls and ceiling of the tomb are constructed of large polished granite blocks. The main theme of the mural paintings on the walls is the four divine beasts that guard the four directions: a blue dragon in the east, white tiger in the west, red phoenix in the south, and black tortoise in the north. The lantern ceiling is adorned with lotus flowers, woodbine scrolls, mountains, and various sacred creatures, including celestial maids, heavenly beings playing musical instruments, girin (mythical unicorn), and bonghwang (mythical birds), all of which symbolize both Daoist concepts and the Buddhist afterlife. In the center of the ceiling is drawn a yellow dragon. These graphically depicted four guardians and the ceiling paintings rendered in an elegant and colorful manner are considered the pinnacle of Goguryeo tomb mural painting. The displayed reproduction of the murals at Gangseodaemyo Tomb were created by a Japanese artist named Oba Tsunekichi around 1930 during the Japanese colonial era. "

This tile was found at a Baekje temple site in Oe-ri, Buyeo-gun, Chungcheongnam-do Province laid on the ground alongside other tiles. The four corners of the tile have square-shaped grooves by which it was affixed to other tiles. These Baekje tiles are decorated with one of eight types of designs, including landscapes, lotus flowers, and bonghwang (mythical birds). They represent an ideal world, auspicious spirits and animals, or the repelling of evil spirits, which reflect the spiritual world of the people of Baekje. This tile shows a stream in the lower section below mountain peaks. On the left and right of the peaks are rock cliffs. A large bonghwang stands above the highest peak in the middle, spreading its wings as if soaring in flight. The bonghwang is surrounded by floating auspicious winds. This tile presents the Daoist worldview of Baekje in that it symbolizes the Three Divine Mountains where immortal Daoist hermits are believed to reside.

Mineulsoe is an elongated square iron plate with its sides cut in the shapes of thorns. It was connected to a shaft by inserting the shaft into the socket of miseulsoe. Since most mineulsoe have been excavated from tombs, they are presumed to have been used as a handheld ritual tool for rites and funeral processions. Mineulsoe were popular in several of the political bodies forming the Gaya Confederacy. In particular, Ara Gaya produced ingenious mineulsoe with the sides of the iron plate cut in the shape of birds in place of thorn-shaped versions. Since such mineulsoe with bird-patterned sides have never been unearthed in other regions, they are believed to be a Gaya innovation. Ancient people who lived on the Korean Peninsula perceived birds as beings that led the souls of the deceased to the afterlife. Thus, mineulsoe with bird-patterned sides seem to have served as tool for transferring the souls of the dead to the next world, reflecting Gaya people’s understanding of the afterlife.

This gold crown and belt were excavated from Hwangnamdaechong Tomb, a fifth-century royal tomb of the Silla Kingdom in Gyeongju. This simple gold crown is adorned with vertical decorations in the shape of tree branch and an antler, and it symbolizes the identity and worldview of the ruler of Silla in the fourth and fifth centuries, known as the Maripgan (great chief). Along with such gold crowns, gold belts were also used to represent the sacred authority of the Maripgan. Decorations made of precious metal in the shapes of a fish, knife, and comma-shaped jades were suspended from the belt featured here. These decorations denote the daily life of the Maripgan. In ancient East Asia, a crown was an emblem of social status and each country maintained its characteristic version. The crowns of the Silla Kingdom, in particular, stand out for their use of a tree as a symbol of sovereign power.

Silla pottery commonly refers to ceramics produced and distributed in Silla, one of the ancient kingdoms on the Korean Peninsula. However, it specifically describes pottery produced from the fourth century until the Unified Silla period. Basic types of Silla pottery were long-necked jars and mounted dishes. Other types including dishes, cups, vessel stands, and jars were added later. Since most Silla pottery has been found in tombs, it is thought to have been used as ritual vessels or burial goods for the deceased. Ancient people believed that their life would go on even after death. Accordingly, goods that they used while alive, including bowls, were buried in their tombs. While China was developing porcelain from early on, the Silla Kingdom established a distinctive tradition of thin, light, and natural ash-glazed earthenware. Silla pottery is considered to be the peak of Korean earthenware production.

This relief sculpture of a rabbit from among the Twelve Zodiac Animal Deities was excavated in Gyeongju in the vicinity of a tomb believed to belong to General Kim Yu-sin of the Silla Kingdom. It represents a guardian deity with the sculpted head of a rabbit but wearing armor and holding a sword. The heavily ornamented armor is realistic, and the heavenly garment appears to flutter. Sculptures of the Twelve Zodiac Animal Deities in armor, including this example, were buried around the tomb of Kim Yu-sin, and the base of the mound was surrounded by stone slabs also bearing carved images of the Twelve Zodiac Animal Deities clad in casual dress. The custom of burying images of Twelve Zodiac Animal Deities inside a tomb was transmitted from Tang China to the Silla Kingdom. In China, these deities were made into small dolls and buried in the tomb. In Silla, however, the deities were carved on the stone slabs surrounding the base of the tomb. As the guardians of time and the directions, the Twelve Zodiac Animal Deities are commonly depicted as military figures wearing armor and holding a sword in either one or both hands.

A spoon is an especially handy utensil for eating liquid foods such as soup. Spoons made of bone were common in the Bronze Age on the Korean Peninsula, but metal spoons came to be used widely from at least the Three Kingdoms Period. Spoons from the Goryeo Dynasty consist of a shallow bowl for scooping and a strong curved handle with the end split like a swallow tail. Such spoons have been excavated alongside chopsticks from Goryeo-period ruins, indicating that Goryeo people used both chopsticks and spoons in their dietary life. Spoons were used since ancient times in China and Japan as well. However, Chinese spoons more resembled ladles. Moreover, Japanese spoons were mainly used only at banquets for foreign envoys. Thus, in China and Japan, spoons made a smaller contribution to dietary practices. Traces of such differences in the use of spoons can still be found today.

Yongbieocheonga (Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven) is an epic poem about the achievements of King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon Dynasty, his ancestors, and his son King Taejong, as well as the founding of the Joseon Dynasty. It was composed in Hangeul and annotated in Chinese characters. Hangeul is the indigenous writing system of Korea created during the reign of King Sejong of the Joseon Dynasty. This book was completed in 1445, one year before the public promulgation of Hangeul or Hunmin Jeongeum (Correct Sounds for the Instruction of the People) and was published in 1447. It is important as the first publication issued during the creation process of Hangeul, and it provides an invaluable resource for the study of fifteenth-century language and literature. By presenting these poems about the legitimacy of the foundation of the Joseon Dynasty in Hangeul, the Joseon royal court is presumed to have been attempting to promote the new writing system.

Uigwe, or royal protocols, are illustrated documents describing the full process of preparing, executing, and performing the major state rites and ceremonies of the Joseon royal court, including weddings, funerals, and enthronement ceremonies. Many uigwe were housed at the Oegyujanggak (the royal library annex) in Ganghwado Island, but most of these were destroyed in a fire during the invasion of Ganghwado by a French fleet in 1866. When the French forces retreated from the island, they took with them 297 volumes of uigwe, all of which had been returned to Korea in 2011. Each volume of the uigwe from the Oegyujanggak consists of texts elaborately written on high-quality paper, illustrations painted using natural pigments, and a cover made from silk. Since most uigwe were produced for kings’ royal viewing, they feature the highest level of quality and artistic dignity possible at the time. Moreover, as a majority of these are the sole remaining copies either in Korea or abroad, they are considered irreplaceable. Uigwe are a form of recorded heritage unique to Korea that is not found in other countries with the same Confucian cultures, particularly China, Japan, and Vietnam.

Most kings of the Joseon Dynasty were proficient in art and literature. Since Joseon kings began such studies while still the crown prince and continued to work at them after ascending to the throne, many demonstrated outstanding skills in composing poems and prose and creating calligraphy. Kings who had newly acceded to the throne collected the calligraphy of previous kings and had it engraved on stones. These stones were called eopil seokgak, and it was practiced as a means of inheriting the great achievements of previous kings and performing filial piety. Moreover, eopil seokgak symbolizing Joseon kings’ understanding of art and literature served as a means to demonstrate the cultural refinement and legitimacy of the royal court of Joseon as a country of scholars. Another purpose of eopil seokgak was to produce and widely disseminate rubbings of kings’ calligraphy. Many editions of Yeolseong eopil (Collection of Successive Rulers), a compilation of calligraphic works of Joseon kings, were published and distributed. Among the kings of the Joseon era, King Seonjo was known as a master calligrapher. He also singled out and patronized Han Ho (sobriquet: Seokbong), a highly acclaimed calligrapher of the time, thus leaving a mark on the history of Korean art. Samples of the dignified art and literature of Joseon royal court were carved onto stones and passed down to future generations.

A gwaebul refers to a grand-scale Buddhist hanging scroll for use at large outdoor assemblies or rituals attracting crowds of participants. Most gwaebul scrolls are eight or nine meters high. Some enormous examples are over twelve meters in height. Gwaebul are a type of Buddhist painting unique to Joseon with no counterparts found in neighboring China and Japan. Many lives were lost to war and natural disasters during the Joseon Dynasty, and Buddhist rituals to placate the spirits of deceased parents and siblings were frequently held at temples. Gwaebul paintings were hung to lead the spirits of the dead to the pure land during Yesujae (a ritual for the living to accumulate merit in advance for their transfer to paradise after death) and Suryukjae (a ritual held to console the spirits of the dead). These paintings were also used for other Buddhist rites, including Yeongsanjae (celebration of the Buddha’s sermon on Vulture Peak Mountain) and Gwaneumjae (celebration of the Bodhisattva of Great Compassion). Buddhist hanging scrolls and Buddhist rituals of the Joseon Dynasty continue today, comprising an integral part of the identity of Korean Buddhist culture.

Hwagak, a craft making decorative use of ox horn, is a technique unique to Joseon. The back sides of thinly sliced sheets of ox horn are painted and then attached to the surface of wooden furniture. The technique is presumed to have originated from the practice of painting the rear sides of sea turtle shells. The hwagak technique was used to add primary colors and decoration to products used by women, including combs and furniture intended for women’s quarters. This box is adorned with an ox-horn painting of imaginary creatures. Mythical animals and wild beasts like dragons, tigers, haetae (a mythical lion), and elephants join auspicious symbols such as young boys and peonies on separate ox-horn sheets that are assembled later. The red color applied to the backgrounds of these ox-horn sheets not only brightens the case, but is thought to ward off evil spirits. This hwagak box embodies Joseon women’s longing for beauty and a peaceful life.

These sculptures belong to a group of thirty Buddhist sculptures found during the process of dismantling and repair of the Octagonal Five-Story Stone Pagoda next to the Golden Hall of Sujongsa Temple in Namyangju, Gyeonggi-do Province. The excavated sculptures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were inserted into the pagoda by Queen Inmok, the second queen consort of King Seonjo, in 1628. Slight variations in the hand gestures and ornaments can be noted in the sculptures. Their faces show a loveliness that is only rarely expressed in large-scale Buddhist sculptures. The heads of Buddhist sculptures from the Joseon Dynasty are large and incline slightly forward, as seen in this sculpture. These features are believed to be a product of shifts in the mode of worship as devotees came to venerate Buddhist sculptures at close range when rituals began to be held inside Buddhist halls

Bells for use in Buddhist rituals were produced in China, Korea, and Japan. However, the forms, top loops, and decorations differ in the three countries. Chinese and Japanese bells have a loop with two dragons, while Korean bells long featured just one. A loop with two dragons did eventually emerge in Korea during the Joseon Dynasty under the influence of Chinese bells, however. Korean bells have a sound tube next to the loop, unlike their Chinese and Japanese counterparts. This bell from Cheonheungsa Temple is a Goryeo-period bell demonstrating the characteristics of Korean Buddhist bells. It is unusual in that decoration in the shape of an ancestral tablet is added. The ancestral tablet bears an inscription indicating that the bell was created in 1010 for use at Cheonheungsa Temple on Seonggeosan Mountain. The dragon with its head up and facing front is a design that first appeared during the Goryeo period.

This meabyeong (prunus vase) presents a small mouth, robust but gently-rounded shoulders that curve elegantly down to the waist, and a gently flaring base, embodying the distinctive curvilinear beauty of Goryeo celadon meabyeong. Its design is noteworthy as well. The shoulders are encircled with black and white inlaid lines with tassels added at four corners, creating an impression that the shoulders are draped with a textile. The center of the body displays large peonies, a symbol of wealth. The peonies are inlaid using black and white slip and enlivened by red copper pigments. At the time, copper pigment was not widely used in East Asia since it easily vaporized at the high temperatures required to fire celadon. Accordingly, Goryeo celadon master potters demonstrated a high level of technological prowess by producing a vivid red color using copper pigments. This decorative thirteenth-century meabyeong from the Goryeo Dynasty reflects the refined tastes of the Goryeo nobility.

"Celadon typifies the crafts of the Goryeo Dynasty. However, a large number of white porcelain were also produced at the time. It has been discovered that white porcelain was fired at brick kilns built in the early Goryeo period. Moreover, white porcelain has been unearthed at the kiln sites in Buan and Gangjin in Jeolla-do Province, which were known to be the major production centers for Goryeo celadon. The shapes and designs of Goryeo white porcelain were modeled after Goryeo celadons. When inlaid celadon was in fashion, some white porcelain were produced reflecting the influence of inlaid celadons. This maebyeong is a typical example of this trend. The ribbed body of the vase, divided by six furrows, is modeled after Korean melon. Each of the six sides is inlaid with a diamond pattern which is filled with a layer of celadon clay and then black and white inlaid with designs of peonies, willows, and reeds. The inlay of celadon clay into white porcelain is an application of combining celadon and white porcelain in a single vessel. This blend of inlaying celadon clay into white porcelain and further decorating it with inlaying techniques was not normally seen in China despite its advanced porcelain and celadon production, demonstrating the originality of Goryeo potters. "

"Buncheong sagi, an abbreviation of bunjang hoecheong sagi (grayish-blue stoneware decorated with white slip), refers to a type of ceramics embellished with white clay slip. Buncheong ware was adorned using diverse techniques that reflect the aesthetic sensibilities of Joseon people. An exquisite contrast between the dark clay body and white slip as well as simplified and ordinary designs are characteristic of buncheong ware. This type of drum-shaped vessel with a horizontally long cylindrical body was produced to contain and easily transport liquid. One side depicts a fish holding water plants in its mouth while leisurely swimming. On the other side are lifelike peony leaves. Fish represent fecundity since they lay large numbers of eggs. Moreover, fish served in China as a favored auspicious theme for adorning craftworks since the pronunciation of the Chinese character for fish was the same as that of the character meaning sufficiency. "

This bottle with its abundant volume and elegant curves embodies a beauty unique to the white porcelain bottles produced in the early Joseon period. It recalls a line from a poem by the Tang poet Li Bai: “Why is the boy who went out to buy wine in a bottle tied with blue strings so late.” The exterior bottom bears a Hangeul inscription indicating that it was produced at some point after the invention of Hangeul in 1443. Since unadorned pure-white porcelain and porcelain painted underglaze in cobalt blue gained enormous popularity in Joseon at the time, such white porcelain bottles decorated with a simple rope design in iron underglaze were rare. The line created by an unhesitant, powerful stroke and the restrained yet bold composition reflect a more modern aesthetic.